1Overview of Endocrinology
Endocrinology studies the glands that secrete hormones into the blood to act remotely on target organs. The examination logic is based on two questions: is the gland in excess or in deficit, and is the attack primary (gland) or central (pituitary/hypothalamus)?
Hormone
Chemical messenger released by an endocrine gland, transported by the blood, acting at low concentration on specific receptors in target organs.
Endocrine axis
Hierarchical chain hypothalamus → pituitary → peripheral gland, regulated by feedback of the final hormone on the upper levels.
Retrospection (feedback)
The negative feedback is the rule: when the peripheral hormone increases, it slows down the hypothalamus and the pituitary gland, and vice versa. The main axes:
- Thyrotropic: TRH → TSH → T3/T4.
- Corticotropic: CRH → ACTH → cortisol.
- Gonadotropic: GnRH → FSH/LH → estrogen/testosterone.
- Somatotropic: GHRH → GH → IGF-1.
- Lactotrope: prolactin is mainly under permanent dopaminergic brake.
Levels of achievement
- Primary: the peripheral gland is diseased. Pituitary trophic hormone is high in the event of a deficit (loss of the brake), bass in case of excess.
- Secondary: the pituitary gland is involved (deficiency or excess of trophic hormone).
- Tertiary: the hypothalamus is involved (releasing hormone deficiency).
| Parameter | Primary involvement (gland) | Secondary damage (pituitary) |
|---|---|---|
| Headquarters | Peripheral gland | Anterior pituitary |
| Peripheral hormone | Bass | Bass |
| Trophic hormone (TSH, ACTH, etc.) | High (loss of feedback) | Unsuitable low or “normal” |
| Thyroid example | Hypothyroidism: TSH ↑, T4 ↓ | Central hypothyroidism: low/normal TSH, T4 ↓ |
Hormonal explorations (principles)
- Static dosages: peripheral hormone coupled to its trophine, under standardized conditions (circadian rhythm, fasting, rest).
- Dynamic stimulation tests: explore a hypofunction (is the gland responding?).
- Dynamic braking tests: explore a hyperfunction (can the secretion be curbed?).
- Targeted Imaging: ultrasound, CT, pituitary/adrenal MRI along the axis.
- Negative feedback governs all axes: you must always read the target hormone with his trophine.
- Deficiency + high trophine = impairment primary ; deficiency + low/normal trophin = impairment central.
- We stimulate to seek a deficit, we slow down to seek an excess.
- A hormone interpreted alone, without its trophin, is misleading (e.g. low T4 + low TSH = central origin, not hyperthyroidism).
- Neglected sampling conditions: cortisol and GH have a rhythm, prolactin rises with stress and effort.
- A “normal” trophine can be unsuitable context and therefore pathological.
2Diabetes mellitus: definition and classification
Diabetes mellitus is a chronic hyperglycemia linked to a defect in insulin secretion, to insulin resistance, or both. The diagnosis is biological; the classification guides the treatment.
Diagnostic criteria (principles)
- Fasting blood glucose ≥ 1.26 g/L (7 mmol/L), to be confirmed.
- Blood sugar ≥ 2 g/L (11.1 mmol/L) at any time + cardinal syndrome.
- Blood sugar ≥ 2 g/L at 2e hour of an OGTT.
- HbA1c ≥ 6.5% (reflecting the balance of the last ~3 months).
Cardinal syndrome
Polyuria, polydipsia, polyphagia and weight loss: it reflects a marked insulin deficiency and requires immediate treatment.
Main types
Type 1
- Autoimmune, deficiency absolute in insulin
- Subject often young, sudden onset, ketosis
- Autoantibodies (anti-GAD, anti-IA2, anti-islet)
Type 2
- Insulin resistance + relative insulinopenia
- Background: age, overweight, sedentary lifestyle, heredity
- Insidious onset, sometimes revealed by a complication
Gestational diabetes
- Carbohydrate tolerance disorder appeared/diagnosed during pregnancy
- Targeted screening; maternal-fetal risks
Secondary diabetes
- Pancreatic, endocrine (Cushing's, acromegaly, pheo)
- Iatrogens (corticoids), genetics (MODY)
Type 2 risk factors
- Overweight/obesity (especially android), sedentary lifestyle.
- Family history of diabetes, history of gestational diabetes.
- Hypertension, dyslipidemia, metabolic syndrome, advanced age.
| Criterion | Type 1 | Type 2 |
|---|---|---|
| Mechanism | Autoimmune destruction of β cells, absolute deficiency | Insulin resistance + progressive insulinopenia |
| Age of onset | Often young (child, young adult) | Often after 40 (but getting younger) |
| Weight | Normal or thin | Frequent overweight/obesity |
| Start | Brutal, cardinal syndrome, ketosis | Insidious, long asymptomatic |
| Antibodies | Present | Absent |
| Spontaneous ketosis | Common | Rare (except intercurrent factor) |
| Basic treatment | Insulin essential from the start | Healthy lifestyle + antidiabetics, insulin secondarily |
- The diagnosis is organic : fasting blood sugar, blood sugar + symptoms, OGTT or HbA1c.
- Type 1 = absolute deficiency (vital insulin); type 2 = insulin resistance in a metabolic area.
- Always look for a secondary cause in the face of atypical diabetes.
- A thin young adult who “decompensates” is not necessarily a type 2: think slow type 1 (LADA).
- Glucosuria does not establish the diagnosis: it is the blood sugar/HbA1c that counts.
- Type 2 can be revealed directly by a complication (retinopathy, heart attack, foot).
3Diabetes treatment
The treatment combines lifestyle, therapeutic education, self-monitoring and medication, with objectives individualized. This sheet remains at the level of principles: it does not give any dosage schedule or adjustment protocol.
Common base
- Hygiene of life: balanced diet, regular physical activity, smoking cessation, weight control.
- Therapeutic education: understanding of the disease, self-monitoring of blood sugar, recognition of hypo/hyperglycemia.
- Compliance and regular monitoring, comprehensive management of cardiovascular risk factors.
Non-insulin antidiabetics (large classes)
- Biguanides (metformin): reduce hepatic glucose production; 1re type 2 intention unless contraindicated.
- Sulphonylureas and glinides : stimulate insulin secretion (risk of hypoglycemia).
- DPP-4 inhibitors (gliptins) and GLP-1 analogues : incretin pathway.
- SGLT2 inhibitors (gliflozins): increase the urinary elimination of glucose.
- α-glucosidase inhibitors and thiazolidinediones : other mechanisms.
Insulin therapy (principles)
- Types of insulins according to duration of action: rapid/rapid analogues, intermediate, slow/slow analogues.
- Basic diagrams: basal only or basal-bolus, adapted to the patient's profile.
- Indications: type 1 (always), type 2 in case of failure, contraindication to orals, pregnancy or acute situation.
Iatrogenic hypoglycemia
- Adrenergic signs (sweating, tremors, palpitations, hunger) then neuroglucopenic (confusion, behavioral disturbances, coma).
- Occurs mainly under insulin and sulfonamides/glinides.
- Principle: resugaring if the patient is conscious; prevention through education and adaptation.
- Type 1 = vital insulin; type 2 = lifestyle + metformin in 1re intention then escalation.
- Hygiene and education are the basis of all treatment, at all stages.
- Insulin and sulfonamides expose you to hypoglycemia: know and prevent.
- Never stop insulin in a type 1, even when fasting or sick: risk of ketoacidosis.
- Adapt the classes according to the terrain (renal function, acute situations).
- Hypoglycemia under sulfonamides can be prolonged and recur after resugarization.
4Acute complications of diabetes
Three major metabolic emergencies: hypoglycemia, diabetic ketoacidosis and hyperosmolar state. They share a common signal: any disorder of consciousness in a diabetic requires immediate capillary blood sugar.
Hypoglycemia
- Causes: excess insulin/sulfonamides, skipped meals, exercise, alcohol.
- Adrenergic then neuroglucopenic signs; severity: convulsions, coma.
- Principle: re-sweetening according to the state of consciousness, search for the cause.
Diabetic ketoacidosis
- Mechanism: profound insulin deficiency → hyperglycemia + ketogenesis + metabolic acidosis.
- Triggering factors: infection, insulin discontinuation, revelation of type 1.
- Clinical: cardinal syndrome, Kussmaul dyspnea, acetone breath, dehydration, abdominal pain, impaired consciousness.
- Biology: hyperglycemia, ketonemia/ketonuria, metabolic acidosis; monitor serum potassium.
Hyperosmolar state
- Terrain: elderly, type 2, limited access to water.
- Major hyperglycemia + intense dehydration + hyperosmolarity, without significant ketosis.
- Disorders of consciousness; high mortality.
Lactic acidosis (principle)
Rare but serious: to be considered in a context of hypoxia/renal failure, particularly under biguanides in a risky situation.
| Criterion | Hypoglycemia | Ketoacidosis | Hyperosmolar state |
|---|---|---|---|
| Land | Any diabetic treated | Especially type 1 | Especially older type 2 |
| Installation | Brutal (minutes) | Hours to days | Days |
| Blood sugar | Bass | High | Very high |
| Ketosis | Absent | Marked | Absent/minimal |
| Acidosis | No | Yes (metabolic) | No/little |
| Dehydration | No | Present | Major |
| Key sign | Sweats, neuroglucopenia | Kussmaul, acetone breath | Dehydration + impaired consciousness |
- Disorder of consciousness + diabetes = capillary blood sugar immediate.
- Ketoacidosis = ketosis + acidosis; hyperosmolar state = dehydration + hyperosmolarity without ketosis.
- These three situations are emergencies requiring hospital referral.
- Ketoacidosis can be inaugural of a type 1; abdominal pain can lead to a surgical cause.
- Hypoglycemia can mimic drunkenness or a stroke.
- “Normal” initial serum potassium despite overall potassium depletion: classic trap.
5Chronic complications of diabetes
Chronic hyperglycemia damages the vessels: microangiopathy (small vessels: eye, kidney, nerve) and macroangiopathy (large vessels: heart, brain, limbs). Screening is systematic and regular.
Microangiopathy
- Retinopathy: fundus screening/retinophotography; risk of visual impairment and blindness.
- Nephropathy: microalbuminuria → proteinuria → renal failure; monitoring of albuminuria and renal function.
- Neuropathy: sensory peripheral “in sock”; autonomic (cardiac, digestive, bladder, genitourinary).
Macroangiopathy
- Coronary artery disease (often silent in diabetics), stroke, arteriopathy of the lower limbs.
- Worsened by associated risk factors: hypertension, dyslipidemia, tobacco.
Diabetic foot
- Tripod: neuropathy + arteriopathy + infection; painless plantar perforator.
- Prevention: appropriate footwear, foot care and inspection, education.
- Severity: possible rapid progression towards amputation.
| Criterion | Microangiopathy | Macroangiopathy |
|---|---|---|
| Ships | Small vessels (capillaries) | Large and medium vessels (atheroma) |
| Organs | Retina, kidney, nerves | Heart, brain, lower limbs |
| Specific to diabetes | Almost specific | Accelerated atheroma, non-specific |
| Screening | Fundus examination, albuminuria, neuro and foot examination | ECG/cardio assessment, pulse palpation, Doppler ultrasound |
| Key prevention | Blood sugar balance | Comprehensive control of risk factors |
- Systematic annual screening: eye, kidney, feet, heart and vessels.
- Early glycemic control provides lasting protection (“glycemic memory”).
- Diabetic foot is primarily prevented through education and regular inspection.